Understanding authorial choices is crucial when preparing for and writing the Paper 2 essay because it allows students to analyze how and why writers convey meaning through their works. By examining various elements, students can uncover the writers’ intentions, contextual influences, and the impact on the audience, which strengthens the analysis and makes arguments more persuasive. Furthermore, demonstrating an awareness of authorial techniques aligns with IB assessment criteria, ensuring a well-rounded and high-scoring essay.
1. Characterization
Characterization refers to how authors construct and develop their characters. This can include direct description, dialogue, actions, internal thoughts, or interactions with other characters. Strong essays delve into how these choices build relationships, reflect norms, or reveal themes.
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Types of Characters: Consider protagonists, antagonists, minor characters, and symbolic figures.
For example, in A Doll’s House, Nora (protagonist) represents the struggle for individuality, while Torvald (antagonist) embodies societal constraints.
For another example, in The Handmaid’s Tale, Offred (protagonist) represents the struggle for identity and autonomy under oppression, while Moira (symbolic figure) represents defiance and resistance against Gilead’s oppressive system.
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Methods of Characterization:
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Direct: The narrator or other characters explicitly describe traits.
For example, in Macbeth, King Duncan explicitly describes Macbeth as noble and deserving of the title he has just received after defeating the Thane of Cawdor through his line: “What he hath lost noble Macbeth hath won” (Act 1, Scene 4).
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Indirect: Traits are inferred through actions, dialogue, or reactions.
For example, again in Macbeth, Macbeth’s soliloquy “But in these cases / We still have judgement here, that we but teach / Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return / To plague th’ inventor” (Act 1, Scene 7) as he reflects on the consequences of murdering King Duncan reveals his internal conflict and indicates that he is not a straightforward villain but a man torn between ambition and guilt.
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Dynamic vs. Static Characters: Analyze how (or if) characters evolve throughout the text, reflecting shifts in themes or ideas.
For example, in The Great Gatsby, Gatsby is a dynamic character whose portrayal is steeped in irony: although he embodies the archetype of the American Dream, his obsessive longing for the past and Daisy ultimately reveals the emptiness of his dream, showing how his desires evolve and lead to his downfall.
For another example, in Julius Caesar, despite warnings and the growing conspiracy against Caesar, his arrogance and belief in his invincibility lead him to dismiss threats, ultimately contributing to his assassination. His unwavering confidence in his own power highlights his lack of growth or change, marking him as a static character.
Tip: When comparing characterization across two works, focus on how the methods differ and why. For example, one author might use a first-person narrator to provide intimate insight, while another might rely on dialogue to reveal relationships and conflicts.
2. Setting
Setting refers to the time, place, and context in which a story unfolds. Through the use of setting, authors can create mood, influence character development, and highlight themes. Strong essays delve into how these choices shape the plot, providing deeper insight into the psychological or emotional states of characters.
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Physical Location: Consider how the physical environment in which characters interact serves as a metaphor for the characters' emotional states or societal conditions, and also how it reflect themes of confinement, freedom, or isolation
For example, in Death and the Maiden, the physical setting of Paulina’s home, which becomes the site of her confrontation with Roberto, is seemingly a secure space, but becomes a place of psychological and emotional imprisonment, symbolizing her unresolved trauma.
For another example, in Oedipus Rex, the physical setting of Thebes, a city plagued by suffering and a pestilence, mirrors the internal turmoil of Oedipus. His eventual realization that he himself is the source of the plague is symbolically tied to the physical decay of the city.
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Time Period & Society: Understand how the historical time and cultural context in which a story takes place shape characters’ behaviors, values, and relationships. The power structures, social norms, and expectations of a given time influence the choices characters make and often define the conflicts within the story.
For example, Hedda Gabler is set in late 19th-century Norway and Hedda reflects the rigid gender roles and societal expectations of women in that time. The power structure is rooted in patriarchy, where women’s roles are defined by marriage, motherhood, and societal expectations.
For another example, Sula is set in a Black community in Ohio in the early to mid-20th century and Sula reflects the racial and social norms of a segregated society. The power structure is marked by racial inequality, while gender expectations also influence the lives of women like Sula.
Tip: When comparing the use of setting across two works, focus on how the authors utilize the time period, physical location, and/or societal context to reinforce themes or character development (why). For example, one author may choose a decaying, isolated environment to symbolize a character’s internal decay or sense of entrapment, while another might use a vibrant, bustling city to reflect a character’s ambition or struggle for identity.
3. Formal Features
Formal features refer to the structural and organizational elements of a text, such as narrative structure, point of view, or pacing. These choices influence how the story is experienced and interpreted.
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Narrative Structure: Analyze whether the text follows a linear, non-linear, cyclical or fragmented structure. Consider whether the structure reflects the theme and/or mimics the characters’ experiences.
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Point of View: Explore the impact of first-person, third-person omniscient, or limited narration on the reader’s access to information and emotional connection to characters.
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Framing Devices: Discuss prologues, epilogues, or nested narratives and their contribution to the thematic depth of the text.
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Pacing: Analyze the speed at which the narrative unfolds and how tension is built or resolved through sentence length, paragraph structure, and timing of key events.
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Genre and Form: Understand the type of literary work (novel, short story, poem, play, etc.) and the conventions associated with that word. Consider whether the work follows traditional genre expectations or subverts them.
Tip: When analyzing formal features, consider how multiple formal features—such as narrative structure, characterization, and setting—work together to create meaning, rather than examining them in isolation.
For example, in 1984, a tightly controlled linear narrative combined with a limited third-person perspective work together to immerse the reader in Winston’s psychological decline and reinforce the novel’s oppressive atmosphere. The linear structure mirrors the inescapable progression of totalitarian control, as Winston’s initial resistance inevitably gives way to his eventual submission, reflecting the inevitability of the Party’s power. Simultaneously, the limited third-person point of view, which confines the reader to Winston’s thoughts and experiences, creates an intimate yet claustrophobic perspective that aligns with his growing paranoia and isolation. The dystopian genre amplifies these effects by establishing a bleak and deterministic world where personal autonomy is systematically eroded.
4. Stylistic Features
Stylistic features refer to the language choices and literary techniques that authors use to create meaning, evoke emotion, and develop themes within a text. Analyzing these elements can reveal deeper layers of interpretation and enhance an understanding of the author's intent.
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Diction and Tone and/or Mood: Explore the connotations of word choices and how tone (e.g., sarcastic, melancholic) shapes the reader’s perception.
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Imagery and Symbolism: Discuss how sensory details or recurring symbols contribute to the text’s themes or emotional resonance.
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Figurative Language: Focus on metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole explaining how they create connection between ideas and deepen understanding of key themes.
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Foreshadowing: Consider how early details subtly predict later outcomes to build suspense and influence reader’s expectations.
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Irony (Situational or Dramatic): Examine how the author creates a contrast between expectation and reality to enhance character development and/or themes.
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Motif: Consider how the author incorporates recurring elements, such as symbols, ideas, or phrases, to reinforce themes and unify the narrative.
Tip: When analyzing stylistic features, build your analysis by focusing on multiple levels: the feature itself, its immediate effect, and its contribution to the text's broader themes or purpose.
For example, in Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare’s use of foreshadowing enhances the play’s tragic inevitability, emphasizing the theme of fate. For example, Romeo’s line, “My mind misgives some consequence yet hanging in the stars” foreshadows the catastrophic events that follow his attendance at the Capulet ball, creating a sense of tension and anticipation. Beyond its immediate effect, the foreshadowing contributes to the play’s broader exploration of destiny versus free will, reinforcing the idea that the lovers are trapped by forces beyond their control. Shakespeare’s repeated use of celestial imagery in moments of foreshadowing, underscores the larger cosmic forces at play, reminding the audience of the inevitable tragedy. By balancing the immediate emotional impact with its thematic depth, foreshadowing enriches the audience’s understanding of the play’s central conflicts.
5. Theme
Theme refers to the central ideas or underlying messages explored in a literary work. It provides insight into human nature, society, and universal concepts such as love, power, betrayal, and identity. Themes are not always explicitly stated; rather, they emerge through character actions, conflicts, and formal and stylistic choices such as point of view, imagery, and dialogue.
Text | Theme | Techniques |
The Bloody Chamber by Angela Carter | Complex dynamics of female agency and power where objectification of women in a patriarchal society plays a significant role. | - Gothic Imagery: gothic elements like dark, eerie setting, and supernatural symbols enhance the sense of danger and objectification.
- Narrative Voice: first-person narrator allows readers to experience the protagonist’s evolving sense of power and awareness, emphasizing the agency of the female character in a traditionally male-dominated context. |
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou | Deep impacts of racism and oppression on identity in the pursuit of freedom. | - Motif of Flight: recurring caged bird, representing both oppression and resilience, reinforces the theme of longing for liberation and identity.
- Flashbacks: moments and descriptions of the author’s real past reveal the lasting effects of racism and oppression on the author’s sense of self, while showing her resilience and growth over time. |
Using Theme to Understand the Author’s Intention
Themes are a powerful tool for uncovering an author’s purpose in writing a literary work. Authors often craft their narratives to explore universal or socially relevant ideas, and themes provide insight into what the writer seeks to communicate about the human experience. By linking thematic elements to the author’s intentions, students can analyze the text beyond surface-level storytelling and uncover deeper messages regarding cultural, political, or personal commentary.
Text | Intention + Human Experience |
The Bloody Chamber | Cater intends to reimagine traditional fairy tales through a feminist lens and thereby challenge the traditional portrayal of women as passive victims and instead depict them as active agents of their own destinies.
Carter communicates that women have the power to resist and overcome oppressive forces, even in the most grim circumstances. The human experience, according to Carter, is fraught with danger but it is also full of the potential for transformation and empowerment. |
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings | Angelou intends to share her personal story of growing up as a Black woman in the segregated American South while communicating the painful realities of racism, trauma, and oppression.
Angelou communicates that despite the crushing weight of racism and oppression, there is hope in personal growth, resilience, and the power of self-acceptance. The human experience, according to Aneglou, is a universal struggle for identity and belonging especially under systemic oppression. |
Practical Integration into Paper 2: Compare techniques across texts by organizing a C&C chart (for details, refer to page 16) to break down how each feature is deployed.
Authorial Choice | Text A | Text B | Comparison |
First-person narrative | Unnamed female protagonist in The Bloody Chamber who shifts from passively to actively seeking agency. | Angelou’s own childhood memories intertwined with reflections reflects Maya’s emotional and psychological growth. | Female protagonists’ perspectives provide emotional insights into their struggles with gendered oppression but both manage to also empower women in their respective works. |